Paper 101: Gender, Power, and Sexual Politics in 'The Rover:' A Feminist and Psychoanalytic Reading

This blog is a part of the assignment of Paper 101: Literature of the Elizabethan and Restoration Periods

Gender, Power, and Sexual Politics in 'The Rover:' A Feminist and Psychoanalytic Reading

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Academic Details

Name: Rajdeep A. Bavaliya
Roll No.: 22
Enrollment No.: 5108240006
Sem.: 1
Batch: 2024 - 2026
E-mail: rajdeepbavaliya2@gmail.com

Assignment Details

Paper Name: Literature of the Elizabethan and Restoration Periods
Paper No.: 101
Paper Code: 22392
Unit: 3 - Aphra Behn’s The Rover
Topic: Gender, Power, and Sexual Politics in 'The Rover:' A Feminist and Psychoanalytic Reading
Submitted To: Smt. Sujata Binoy Gardi, Department of English, Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University
Submitted Date: November 20, 2024

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Reading time: 15m 27s

Abstract:

This paper explores the themes of gender, power, and sexual politics in Aphra Behn’s 'The Rover' (1677) through feminist and psychoanalytic lenses. Set against the backdrop of Restoration England, the play critiques patriarchal structures, focusing on the complexities of female agency, sexual autonomy, and male aggression. By analyzing the characters of Hellena, Angellica Bianca, and Florinda, the paper examines how Behn portrays women navigating the constraints of a society that commodifies their bodies and enforces traditional gender roles. Through a feminist lens, the paper discusses the ways in which the female characters assert agency, resist male dominance, and subvert gender norms. A psychoanalytic approach further delves into the unconscious desires and power dynamics at play, especially in the relationships between the male libertine, Willmore, and the women he encounters. The analysis highlights the intersection of sexual freedom, male entitlement, and the critique of patriarchal authority. Ultimately, 'The Rover' presents a nuanced commentary on the gendered power relations of the Restoration period, reflecting both the possibilities and limitations of female empowerment in a male-dominated society.

Keywords:

Assignment, Aphra Behn, The Rover, feminist analysis, psychoanalytic theory, gender, power, sexual politics, patriarchy, sexual agency, male aggression, Restoration England, female empowerment, libertinism.

1. Introduction

Aphra Behn c. 1670

Title page of the first edition, 1677

Aphra Behn’s 'The Rover' (1677) is often celebrated as a text that challenges Restoration-era norms regarding gender, power, and sexuality. Set during the Carnival in Naples, it interweaves themes of female agency, male aggression, and societal restrictions. Behn uses her characters—Hellena, Angellica Bianca, and Willmore—to critique patriarchal structures while revealing the complex psychological underpinnings of their relationships. This assignment employs feminist and psychoanalytic lenses to explore the interplay between gender dynamics and sexual politics in the play, paying close attention to how Behn critiques or complicates the libertine ethos of her time.

2. Historical and Cultural Context

Restoration England saw evolving attitudes toward gender and sexuality, shaped by the societal aftermath of the Interregnum and the re-establishment of monarchy under Charles II. This period’s cultural ethos, dominated by libertine ideals, celebrated male freedom and female subjugation. However, the period also marked a transition in women's roles within marriage and society, offering limited avenues for female self-determination. Women like Hellena and Angellica struggle against these constraints, striving for autonomy in a male-dominated world where,

“Critics have often remarked that in Aphra Behn's The Rover, ladies act like whores and whores like ladies. On this level, the play presents a dramatic world dominated by the two principal patriarchal definitions of women, but in which the boundary separating one category from the other has become blurred.”

(Pacheco)

3. Feminist Analysis: Female Agency and Patriarchal Constraints

3.1. Hellena: Wit as Resistance

Hellena, a novice nun, epitomizes rebellion against societal and familial expectations. From the play’s opening, she rejects the life prescribed by her brother Pedro, stating:

“Marry Don Vincentio! hang me, such a Wedlock would be worse than Adultery with another Man: I had rather see her in the Hostel de Dieu, to waste her Youth there in Vows, and be a Handmaid to Lazers and Cripples, than to lose it in such a Marriage.”

(Behn, The Works of Aphra Behn, Volume I)

Her sharp wit and determination to pursue her own desires—particularly her flirtation with Willmore—illustrate her resistance to patriarchal control. As Fitzmaurice notes,

“Hellena's victory over Willmore, then, is not just a matter of her stronger resolve and his weakening. It is also a victory for anyone who is unwilling to be bound by strict distinctions of sex and gende”

(Fitzmaurice).

By outwitting Willmore, she subverts traditional gender roles and asserts her subjectivity.

3.2. Angellica Bianca: The Commodification of Women

In contrast to Hellena, Angellica Bianca’s narrative exposes the darker realities of female commodification. As a courtesan, Angellica initially wields her beauty as a form of power, symbolized by the portrait she hangs outside her residence, declaring her worth. Yet her vulnerability emerges when she falls in love with Willmore, a man who ultimately devalues her. His callous dismissal—

“A virtuous Mistress! Death, what a thing thou hast found out for me! why what the Devil should I do with a virtuous Woman?—a fort of ill-natur’d Creatures, that take a Pride to torment a Lover. Virtue is but an Infirmity in Women, a Disease that renders even the 71handsom ungrateful; whilst the ill-favour’d, for want of Solicitations and Address, only fancy themselves so.—I have lain with a Woman of Quality, who has all the while been railing at Whores.”

(Behn, The Works of Aphra Behn, Volume I)

—reduces her to a mere commodity, underscoring the transactional nature of her world. As Pacheco observes, Angellica’s inner conflict reveals—

“The presence of rape in the experiences of these two characters works to interrogate and problematize different modes of female subjectivity by situating them within a patriarchal dramatic world in which the psychology of rape is endemic.”

(Pacheco)

—emphasizing the fragile nature of female power in a patriarchal society.

3.3. Florinda: Violence and Rape Culture

Florinda’s plight reflects the pervasive threat of male aggression in 'The Rover.' She faces multiple attempted rapes, beginning with Willmore’s drunken assault. Behn stages these interactions to highlight the normalization of male violence, as Willmore interprets Florinda’s resistance as a form of coy seduction:

her "No" really means "Yes."

(Pacheco)

Pacheco describes these moments as—

“contested interaction”

(Pacheco)

—that expose the systemic nature of sexual violence and its trivialization within patriarchal ideology. Florinda’s ultimate survival depends not on her own agency but on male intervention, a narrative choice that critiques yet perpetuates female disempowerment.

4. Psychoanalytic Approach: Desire and Repression

4.1. Willmore: Libertine Desires and Male Aggression

Willmore, the titular Rover, embodies the libertine ethos of Restoration comedy, driven by unrestrained desire. His relentless pursuit of pleasure reveals an underlying anxiety about male potency and control. As Szilagyi notes, Willmore’s character reflects—

"As Laura Brown explains, Behn's play was keeping very good company: it "was produced only three months after The Plain Dealer, a year after The Man of Mode, and twenty-six months after The Country Wife, at the height, that is, of the period of major dramatic satire." Brown connects The Rover with these more canonical plays by stressing the formal simi-larity "in its disjunction of social and moral values as well as in its problematic reconciliation of libertinism and royalism." Of course, Brown correctly emphasizes Behn's serious attention to disjunction, libertinism, and royalism, but much of the play's power originates in a major difference from the famous comedies with which it clusters."

(Szilagyi)

His aggression toward Angellica and Florinda stems from a need to assert dominance over women who challenge or complicate his desires. Psychoanalytically, this behavior can be seen as a defense against the perceived threat of female power, which disrupts his constructed identity as a heroic seducer.

4.2. Angellica: Love as Self-Destruction

Angellica’s descent into emotional vulnerability upon loving Willmore exemplifies Freud’s concept of melancholia, wherein loss of agency manifests as self-destruction. Her lament—

“How many vows you breath’d upon my Bosom,
Never to be unjust—have you forgot so soon?”

(Behn, The Works of Aphra Behn, Volume I)

—reflects a fractured sense of self, as she equates her worth with Willmore’s affection. Angellica’s failure to reconcile her identity as a courtesan with her desire for romantic love reveals the tension between societal roles and personal fulfillment.

5. Male Aggression and Female Vulnerability

5.1. Willmore and Angellica: The Romanticization of Male Aggression

In 'The Rover,' Behn critiques the romanticization of male aggression, particularly through the relationship between Willmore and Angellica Bianca. Willmore’s treatment of Angellica oscillates between admiration for her beauty and contempt for her profession. In Act IV, when he abandons her in favor of Hellena, he insults her, calling her a "harlot" despite having sought her company earlier in the play. This shift in attitude reflects Willmore's internalization of patriarchal views that commodify women, reducing them to their sexual availability. His aggressive behavior and Angellica's eventual submission echo broader societal tendencies to view women as either objects to be pursued or discarded at will.

In this context, 'The Rover' serves as a critique of the libertine male ethos, which insists that male sexual entitlement is natural, even virtuous. Willmore’s attempts to seduce Angellica are not motivated by genuine affection but by his need to assert control. His aggression is framed as part of a larger cultural narrative that equates masculinity with conquest and dominance. This tension between male power and female vulnerability is one of the central themes that Behn explores, subtly critiquing the way patriarchal structures excuse or even valorize male aggression in romantic relationships.

5.2 Florinda and Blunt: Sexual Violence as Retaliation

While Willmore’s aggression is driven by desire, the character of Blunt introduces a more explicit form of sexual violence. When Blunt is humiliated by Lucetta, he seeks to punish another woman, Florinda, by attempting to rape her. This incident further exemplifies the ways in which male aggression in the play is linked to a desire for control and retribution. Blunt's actions are not just a response to sexual frustration but a means of reclaiming his masculinity, which he feels has been damaged by Lucetta’s mockery. As Fitzmaurice notes, Blunt's use of the term “whe,” a coarse exclamation often tied to male sexual aggression, reflects his attitude toward women as objects to be controlled through violence and humiliation.

This scene highlights a recurring theme in 'The Rover:' the use of sexual violence as a tool of male power. Both Willmore and Blunt view women as dispensable objects whose bodies exist for male pleasure. While Willmore's treatment of Angellica is framed within a libertine, albeit violent, romance, Blunt’s assault on Florinda brings into sharp focus the brutal realities of patriarchal control over women’s sexuality. These depictions of male aggression, particularly in the context of rape and attempted rape, underscore Behn's critical examination of the libertine ethos and its treatment of women as property.

6. Female Agency and Wit: Hellena’s Empowerment

6.1. Hellena’s Role Reversal: Cross-Dressing and Sexual Agency

Hellena’s character presents a unique challenge to the gender norms of her time. She is one of the few women in the play who asserts her sexual agency without the need for male protection or approval. Hellena’s decision to dress as a man during the Carnival—an act of cross-dressing—symbolizes her rejection of traditional female passivity and submission. Through this act, she subverts the rigid gender roles that define women’s sexual roles in Restoration society. Hellena does not seek to emasculate men but instead to empower herself, allowing her to engage with Willmore on equal terms.

Hellena’s cross-dressing also provides a critique of the commodification of women’s bodies. By disguising herself as a man, she momentarily removes herself from the traditional gaze that objectifies women. In doing so, she challenges the expectation that women’s primary function is to be the objects of male desire. This subversion of gender roles is an act of resistance, empowering Hellena to take control of her own sexual destiny. As Fitzmaurice suggests, Hellena’s use of language and her sexual assertiveness—

“Given its use by men elsewhere, it adds spice to her teasing tone and puts him on notice that she will operate on an equal footing with him.”

(Fitzmaurice)

6.2. Wit as a Tool of Empowerment

Hellena’s wit and intelligence are central to her character, and she uses them as tools of empowerment in her relationship with Willmore. In their initial exchanges, Hellena demonstrates that her sharp tongue and clever repartee allow her to engage with Willmore on an intellectual level. This intellectual competition between them is a departure from the more traditional, passive roles assigned to women in the Restoration. Unlike Angellica, whose beauty is her primary asset, Hellena’s wit becomes her weapon. She challenges Willmore’s libertine attitudes and, by doing so, becomes an equal in their relationship.

In the scene where Willmore proposes marriage to Hellena, her response—

“Why, God-a-mercy, Captain!”

(Behn, The Works of Aphra Behn, Volume I)

—is both sarcastic and playful, demonstrating her refusal to be easily conquered by Willmore’s masculine bravado. Her use of humor undermines his attempts at dominance, subverting the expected dynamic between men and women. Through wit, Hellena shows that she does not need to rely on her beauty or submission to gain Willmore’s attention. Instead, she can challenge and, in many ways, outwit him.

7. Comparative Analysis: 'The Rover' and Behn's Other Works

7.1. Female Sexuality in 'Oroonoko' and 'The Lucky Chance'

First edition cover

Behn’s treatment of gender and sexuality in 'The Rover' can be compared to her portrayals in other works, such as 'Oroonoko' and 'The Lucky Chance.' In 'Oroonoko,' the tragic fate of Imoinda highlights the intersection of sexual power and racial dynamics, where female agency is stripped away through both colonial and patriarchal violence. Unlike Hellena, who uses her wit to assert her sexual desires, Imoinda is powerless in the face of male authority, and her tragedy underscores the limitations imposed on women, particularly women of color, in the Restoration period.

In 'The Lucky Chance,' Behn presents a more overt critique of marriage as a contract, with the character of Silvia choosing love over financial security. However, like 'The Rover,' the play portrays the complexity of female agency within a patriarchal system, where women’s desires are often circumscribed by societal expectations. In both plays, Behn uses female characters to challenge traditional gender roles, though the outcomes are frequently bittersweet or tragic.

7.2. The Libertine Legacy: Behn's Critique of Patriarchy

Behn’s libertine works, including 'The Rover,' engage with the tension between freedom and domination, particularly as it relates to sexual politics. While Behn critiques the libertine ethos for its male entitlement and aggression, she also perpetuates some of the same gender dynamics that she seeks to expose. Willmore’s libertinism, for instance, is both a critique of and a reflection of the Restoration’s sexual politics. His unchecked sexual freedom becomes a form of domination, and the women in his life—Angellica, Hellena, and Florinda—are left to navigate the complexities of sexual power and submission.

In this sense, Behn’s work presents a nuanced portrait of gender relations in the Restoration. While she critiques the patriarchal structures that define male and female sexuality, she also conforms to the narrative conventions of her time, presenting characters who both challenge and reinforce traditional power dynamics.

8. The Legacy of 'The Rover:' Gender, Power, and Contemporary Relevance

8.1. The Post-Patriarchal World and the Absence of the Father

A key feature of 'The Rover' is its post-patriarchal setting, which reflects the collapse of the traditional patriarchal order. The absence of the father-figure in the play—both in the literal absence of Florinda and Hellena’s father and in the figurative absence of the monarch during the Interregnum—creates a void that is filled by the fraternal bonds between the male characters. As Szilagyi notes,

“The Cavaliers in their banishment are a sign of the absent patriarch in defeat,”

(Szilagyi)

—and their relationships with the female characters reflect this absence, where—

“dominance is still gendered masculine”

(Szilagyi)

—despite the lack of an actual patriarch.

This void opens up space for the exploration of the fraternal dynamic that underpins the relationships in the play. Characters like Willmore, Belvile, and Pedro act as surrogates for the absent father-figure, with their interactions dominated by competition for dominance, rather than familial loyalty. However, this fraternal camaraderie is fraught with its own contradictions, as male bonding in 'The Rover' often masks underlying power struggles. This power struggle is especially apparent in the tension between the male characters and the women they desire. For instance, Hellena’s decision to engage with Willmore on equal terms reflects her challenge to male authority and a reconfiguration of traditional gender roles. However, this reconfiguration is ultimately compromised by the male desire for control, as Willmore seeks to assert dominance in his relationship with Hellena.

In this sense, 'The Rover' critiques the libertine ethos of the Restoration by revealing its inherent contradictions. While the play celebrates sexual freedom and the idea of a post-patriarchal world where individuals can express their desires without restraint, it simultaneously exposes the limitations of such freedom, particularly for women. The absence of patriarchal authority does not guarantee equality between the sexes but instead leads to a different form of gendered oppression, one that is rooted in sexual violence and male entitlement.

8.2. The Commodification of Women’s Sexuality

Another important theme in 'The Rover' is the commodification of women’s sexuality, which is evident in the treatment of characters like Angellica Bianca. As a courtesan, Angellica’s beauty and sexual availability are her currency, and she uses them to gain power in a male-dominated society. However, when she falls in love with Willmore, this power is stripped away. Her beauty, once a source of self-worth, becomes a commodity that is discarded once it no longer serves the interests of the men around her.

The theme of sexual commodification is also explored through the character of Florinda. Throughout the play, she is treated as a prize to be won, first by her father’s arrangements for marriage to the wealthy Vincentio and later by the male characters who vie for her affections. Despite her initial resistance to these arrangements, her ultimate fate depends on the actions of the men in her life—first her brother, Pedro, and then her lover, Belvile. Florinda’s power is defined by her beauty, wealth, and virginity, which are all commodified within the marriage market. This reflects the broader socio-political themes of the time, where women were often valued for their sexual purity and economic worth rather than their subjectivity or autonomy.

Pacheco argues that the play blurs the boundary between "ladies" and "whores," as both Florinda and Angellica struggle to escape the commodification of their bodies. Florinda's rebellion against forced marriage destabilizes her position within the patriarchy, while Angellica’s self-construction as a Petrarchan mistress marks her attempt to turn her sexual desirability into a form of agency. However, both characters ultimately find themselves ensnared by the very systems they seek to escape. Angellica’s tragedy is that, despite her attempt to exert control over her sexuality, her value is ultimately defined by male desire, while Florinda’s rebellion remains incomplete because she too is caught within the patriarchal structures of exchange.

8.3. The Erotic and the Political: Behn’s Feminist Legacy

Behn’s critique of patriarchy in 'The Rover' is not limited to the realm of personal relationships but extends to broader political and social structures. The play critiques the commodification of women’s bodies, the dehumanization of women within the marriage market, and the normalization of male sexual aggression. However, Behn’s work also offers an alternative vision of female agency, one that is not entirely defined by subjugation. Characters like Hellena, who uses wit and sexual intelligence to assert her desires, and Angellica, who tries to reframe her beauty as a source of power, represent feminist challenges to the patriarchal structures of their time.

While 'The Rover' critiques male dominance and sexual violence, it does so within the context of the Restoration's sexual libertinism, where female empowerment is often undercut by male entitlement. Behn’s feminist legacy, therefore, is complicated: while she critiques patriarchy, she also participates in its structures, presenting women who challenge gender norms but are ultimately constrained by the limitations of their time. Behn's use of language in 'The Rover' creates a “dialogic” relationship between the male and female characters, where their sexual interactions are shaped by the power struggles that exist between them. The comedy of the play, then, is not just about sexual misadventures but also about the broader social and political implications of gendered power dynamics.

8.4. The Intersection of Gender, Desire, and Power in the Modern Context

Behn’s 'The Rover' continues to resonate with contemporary discussions about gender, power, and sexuality. The play’s exploration of sexual violence, commodification, and female agency remains highly relevant, especially in the context of modern debates around consent, sexual autonomy, and gender equality. The themes of male entitlement and the normalization of aggression in sexual relationships echo contemporary critiques of rape culture, where women’s bodies are often seen as commodities to be possessed or conquered.

The play also offers insights into the ways that gender and desire are socially constructed, suggesting that sexual freedom is not inherently liberating for women, but is often bound up with the exercise of male power. In this sense, 'The Rover' challenges contemporary audiences to question the structures that govern sexual and gender relations, even as it reflects the contradictions and limitations of its own time. Hellena’s defiance, Angellica’s tragedy, and Florinda’s resistance all underscore the complexities of navigating sexual power in a world that continues to privilege male desire.

9. Conclusion: Gender, Power, and the Tension Between Liberation and Subjugation

Aphra Behn’s 'The Rover' provides a complex portrayal of gender, power, and sexuality in the Restoration period. Through her characters, Behn critiques the patriarchal structures that define women’s roles in society, offering moments of resistance and empowerment alongside stark portrayals of sexual violence and male aggression. While the play challenges the libertine ethos and its romanticization of male power, it also reinforces some of the same gendered dynamics that it seeks to critique.

In the end, 'The Rover' reflects the tensions inherent in the struggle for female agency within a patriarchal system—tensions that continue to resonate today. Behn’s legacy lies in her ability to both critique and perpetuate the gendered power structures of her time, offering a nuanced and ambivalent portrayal of female desire, agency, and subjugation.

References

1. Behn, Aphra. The Works of Aphra Behn, Volume I. Project Gutenberg, 2020, www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/21339/pg21339-images.html.

2. ---. The Works of Aphra Behn, Volume III. Project Gutenberg, 2020, www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/10039/pg10039-images.html.

3. Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Aphra Behn.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 12 Apr. 2024, www.britannica.com/biography/Aphra-Behn. Accessed 15 Nov. 2024.

4. ---. “Melancholia.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 Oct. 2024, www.britannica.com/science/melancholia-psychology. Accessed 15 Nov. 2024.

5. ---. “Oroonoko.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 4 Mar. 2021, www.britannica.com/topic/Oroonoko-by-Behn. Accessed 15 Nov. 2024.

6. ---. “The Rover.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 31 Jan. 2022, www.britannica.com/topic/The-Rover. Accessed 15 Nov. 2024.

7. Fitzmaurice, James. “THE LANGUAGE OF GENDER AND A TEXTUAL PROBLEM IN APHRA BEHN’S ‘THE ROVER.’” Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, vol. 96, no. 3, 1995, pp. 283–93. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43346105.

8. Pacheco, Anita. “Rape and the Female Subject in Aphra Behn’s ‘The Rover.’” ELH, vol. 65, no. 2, 1998, pp. 323–45. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/30030182.

9. Szilagyi, Stephen. “The Sexual Politics of Behn’s ‘Rover’: After Patriarchy.” Studies in Philology, vol. 95, no. 4, 1998, pp. 435–55. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4174621.