Paper 109: The Architecture of Rasa: Decoding Plot and Emotion in Kalidasa’s 'Abhijñānaśākuntalam'

This blog is a part of the assignment of Paper 109: Literary Theory & Criticism and Indian Aesthetics

The Architecture of Rasa: Decoding Plot and Emotion in Kalidasa’s 'Abhijñānaśākuntalam'

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Academic Details:

Name: Rajdeep A. Bavaliya
Roll No.: 21
Enrollment No.: 5108240006
Sem.: 2
Batch: 2024-26
E-mail: rajdeepbavaliya2@gmail.com

Assignment Details:

Paper Name: Literary Theory & Criticism and Indian Aesthetics
Paper No.: 109
Paper Code: 22402
Unit: 3 - Rasa Theory
Topic: The Architecture of Rasa: Decoding Plot and Emotion in Kalidasa’s 'Abhijñānaśākuntalam'
Submitted To: Smt. Sujata Binoy Gardi, Department of English, Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University
Submitted Date: April 17, 2025

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Reading time: 10m 12s

Abstract:

This study investigates the architectural interplay between plot structure and aesthetic emotion in Kālidāsa’s 'Abhijñānaśākuntalam.' Grounded in Bharata Muni’s rasa theory and the fivefold samdhi model, it examines how the play’s division into mukha, pratimukha, garbha, vimarśa, and nirvahaṇa functions as a technical apparatus for orchestrating determinants (vibhāva), consequents (anubhāva), and transitory states (vyabhicāribhāva). Through structural analysis and engagement with Gerow’s samdhi critique, Balakrishnan’s psychological perspective, and contrasting scholarly viewpoints, the study demonstrates that the samdhi framework not only evokes śṛṅgāra but also integrates karuṇā, vīra, and sānta, thereby unifying narrative design with emotional resonance.

Keywords:

Abhijñānaśākuntalam, Kālidāsa, Samdhi, Rasa Theory, Plot Structure, Sanskrit Drama, Natyāśāstra, Bharata Muni.

Research Question:

How does the fivefold samdhi structure in 'Abhijñānaśākuntalam' operationalize Bharata’s rasa theory to modulate and realize emotional responses throughout the play?

Hypothesis:

The fivefold samdhi structure in Kālidāsa’s 'Abhijñānaśākuntalam' is a deliberately engineered narrative framework that systematically orchestrates determinants (vibhāva), consequents (anubhāva), and transitory states (vyabhicāribhāva) to evoke and sustain multiple rasas, thereby integrating plot and aesthetic emotion into a unified dramatic experience.

1. Introduction

Śakuntalā Looking Back to Glimpse Duṣyanta, scene from 'Shakuntala' painted by Raja Ravi Varma.
Image Source: Shakuntala/Wikimedia Commons

A 20th-century artist's impression of Kālidāsa composing the 'Meghadūta'
Image Source: Kalidasa/Wikimedia Commons

The classical Sanskrit drama 'Abhijñānaśākuntalam' (“The Recognition of Shakuntala”) by Kālidāsa stands as an archetype of the fusion between plotcraft and aesthetic emotion within the Indian theatrical tradition. Central to its enduring appeal is the theory of rasa, articulated by Bharata Muni in his 'Natyāśāstra,' which posits that a drama’s “essence” or “flavour” arises from a finely tuned synthesis of determinants (vibhāva), consequents (anubhāva), and transitory states (vyabhicāribhāva) to elicit enduring emotional states (sthāyibhāva) in the spectator. Yet beyond its theoretical foundation, 'Śākuntalā' exemplifies a meticulously engineered plot—divided into five structural junctures (samdhis)—whose mechanisms serve to instantiate and modulate rasa throughout the play.

This assignment explores the “architecture” of rasa in Kālidāsa’s 'Śākuntalā,' decoding how plot divisions and narrative devices coalesce to evoke and sustain emotional responses. It advances three interrelated aims:

to delineate the formal theory of rasa and plot-structure in the Natyāśāstra,
to analyze the fivefold samdhi system as embodied in Śākuntalā, and
to demonstrate how these structural elements enact various rasas—primarily śṛṅgāra (the erotic)—while accommodating others such as karuṇā (the pathetic), sānta (the peaceful), and vīra (the heroic).

In doing so, it integrates seminal scholarly interpretations—from Gerow’s samdhi analysis to Balakrishnan’s psychological reading—while offering critical engagement with alternative perspectives (e.g., Goodwin and Tieken).

2. Theoretical Framework: Rasa and Plot in the 'Natyāśāstra'

Shiva as the Lord of Dance
Image Source: Natya Shastra/Wikimedia Commons

An image of Bharata Muni at Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, Delhi.
Image Source: Bharata/Wikimedia Commons

2.1. Rasa Theory and Its Components

Bharata Muni’s 'Natyāśāstra' establishes that—

“vibhāva-anubhāva-vyabhicāriṇībhāvānām sanyogāt rasa niṣpattiḥ”

—the rasa arises from the conjunction of determinants, consequents, and transitory states (vyabhicāribhāva) (Tieken). These technical categories function as the—

“ingredients and spices which make up the flavour of a dish,”

(Tieken)

—with sthāyibhāva (enduring emotions) as the “juice” that endows drama with its aesthetic potency. In Bharata’s schema, eight principal rasas—erotic (śṛṅgāra), comic (hāsya), pathetic (karuṇā), furious (raudra), heroic (vīra), odious (bībhatsa), fearful (bhayānaka), and marvellous (adbhuta)—are activated through carefully orchestrated sequences of stagecraft (Tieken). A ninth, sānta (peace), emerges in later treatises but is implicit in Bharata’s emphasis on bliss as intrinsic and innate in man, which performance arts aim to reawaken.

While rasa concerns the “matter” of aesthetic emotion, Bharata distinguishes this from the “body” (sarīra) of dramatic action (itivṛtta)—the play’s performative enactment (Gerow, “Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā. Pt. I”). Plot, therefore, is conceived not merely as a sequence of events but as a technical construct (sarīra) designed to serve rasa’s “soul” (ātman) (Gerow, “Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā. Pt. I”).

2.2. The Indian Plot Model: Fivefold Samdhi System

The 'Natyāśāstra' outlines a theory of dramatic action that partitions a play into five samdhis (junctions): mukha (opening), pratimukha (progression), garbha (development), vimarśa/avamarśa (pause or reflection), and nirvahaṇa/upasaṃhāra (conclusion) (Gerow, “Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā, Pt. II”). Each samdhi comprises integral units of staging—verses, dialogues, gestures—and possesses defined beginnings and ends, structuring the play’s movement toward rasa fulfillment (Gerow, “Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā, Pt. II”). As Gerow observes, “just as the plot as such is instrumental vis-à-vis the rasa, so are each of the five elements subjected to a thorough instrumental analysis” (Gerow, “Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā, Pt. II”). This schematic framework was later elaborated by commentators like Raghavabhaṭṭa, whose 'Arthādyotanīka' offers granular exposition of each samdhi’s aesthetic function (Gerow, “Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā. Pt. I”).

3. Kālidāsa’s 'Śākuntalā': Context and Adaptation

3.1. Synopsis and Mahābhārata Origins

'Śākuntalā' narrates the love between King Duṣyanta and the hermitage maiden Śākuntalā, their separation under Sage Durvāsā’s curse, and ultimate reunion through a ring-token. While its core derives from the 'Mahābhārata' tale, Kālidāsa introduces significant embellishments—psychological nuance, lyrical poetry, and structural refinements. As Emeneau notes,

“usually specific treatment of this play has centered on discussion of the divergences between the 'Mahābhārata' story and Kālidāsa’s plot; this was Gajendragāriar’s chief concern.”

(Emeneau)

Yet, despite profound transformations,

“there can be no shadow of doubt that Kālidāsa’s two verses depend on the six in the epic,”

(Emeneau)

—evidencing his indebtedness even amid innovation.

3.2. Plot Innovations and Psychological Depth

Balakrishnan highlights Kālidāsa’s fascination with the “mystique of the curse,” arguing that in 'Śākuntalā,'

“the curse in 'Abhijñānaśākuntalam' stands apart, a token of the subtle psychological insight of the poet, well repaying study.”

(Balakrishnan)

The ring and curse thus function not as mere deus ex machina but as external symbols of internal proclivities—memory and forgetfulness—underscoring Kālidāsa’s almost engineering-like manipulation of plot for emotional effect (Balakrishnan).

4. Structural Analysis: The Five Samdhis in 'Śākuntalā'

4.1. Mukha Samdhi (Opening)

The mukha samdhi inaugurates the play’s action and introduces the key determinant for śṛṅgāra rasa. Here, Duṣyanta’s entrance into Kanva’s hermitage sets the stage for love’s first “effort” (prayatna):

“mukha: how does the seed produce the first effort? pratimukha: how does the effort engender hope?”

(Gerow, “Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā, Pt. II”)

Śākuntalā’s innocent beauty and the forest’s idyllic tableau present the vibhāva for erotic sentiment, enriched by lyrical verses that praise her virtues (Gerow, “Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā, Pt. II”). Sanna Deutsch further emphasizes Kālidāsa’s framing of parallels between Acts I and VII, noting that the opening seeds of love find their echo in the concluding reconciliation.

4.2. Pratimukha Samdhi (Progression)

In the pratimukha samdhi, the protagonists’ emotional bond deepens. Duṣyanta’s courteous deportment and Śākuntalā’s reciprocation engender śṛṅgāra rasa in its sanyoga (union) aspect. As Gerow observes, in this juncture—

“it is Śākuntalā for the most part whose ‘actions’ further the plot.”

(Gerow, “Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā, Pt. II”)

The king’s inquiry into her lineage, culminating in learned discussions of her sage-born heritage, mirrors Mahābhārata parallels while reconfiguring them into heightened emotional contexts (Emeneau).

4.3. Garbha Samdhi (Development)

The garbha samdhi introduces obstacles that intensify separation, transitioning rasa into the vipralambha (separation) mode of śṛṅgāra. Durvāsā’s irascibility and imposition of the curse constitute pivotal vibhāva, while Śākuntalā’s anguished lamentations exemplify anubhāva:

“after his departure, when she is lost in anxious reveries, the irascible hermit Durvāsas arrives. Enraged at not being received properly as a guest, he lays a curse on her that he, of whom her mind is full, will forget her.”

(Balakrishnan)

Her friends’ intercession secures a conditional reprieve—memory restored only through the ring—further complicating emotional dynamics (Balakrishnan).

Within this samdhi, Gerow notes the concentration of passages where mood is developed “exclusively,” serving as “counterpoint to the plot-interest” and sustaining our engagement with character psychology (Gerow, “Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā, Pt. II”). The curse thus operates both as plot catalyst and rasa amplifier, rendering separation and longing central to the play’s affective core.

4.4. Vimarśa/Avamarśa Samdhi (Reflection)

The vimarśa or avamarśa samdhi invites reflective pause, allowing characters and audience alike to ruminate on separation’s implications. Śākuntalā’s introspective dialogues with her companions, and Duṣyanta’s melancholic soliloquies in later acts, exemplify the use of static “mood pieces” that underscore the inevitability of reunion even amid despair (Gerow, “Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā, Pt. II”). In the context of Bharata’s theory, these sections foreground vyabhicāribhāva—fleeting emotional states such as anxiety, fear, and hope—that interplay with enduring sthāyibhāva.

4.5. Nirvahaṇa/Upasaṃhāra Samdhi (Conclusion)

The nirvahaṇa samdhi brings plot and rasa to their culmination. The rediscovery of the ring and Śākuntalā’s recognition culminate in a cathartic release of tension, fusing śṛṅgāra and sānta rasas. Gerow highlights this structural symmetry: Act VII mirrors Act I, reinforcing “the circularity of its plot” and engendering “certitude” that enriches rasa’s aftertaste (Gerow, “Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā, Pt. II”). As Rabindranath Tagore presciently remarked,

“this indication of the fickleness of royal love is not purposeless at the beginning of the fifth act. With masterly skill the poet here shows that what Durvasa’s curse had brought about had its seeds in human nature.”

(Balakrishnan)

5. Rasa Realization through Plot

5.1. Śṛṅgāra Rasa: Union and Separation

Śṛṅgāra—the erotic sentiment—is paramount in 'Śākuntalā,' permeating all five samdhis in its sanyoga (union) and vipralambha (separation) aspects. Bharata’s schema emphasizes the centrality of union-to-separation dynamics in erotic rasa, with sthāyibhāva of love underscored by vibhāva (glances, embraces) and anubhāva (blushes, sighs). Kālidāsa’s poetic genius lies in his modulation of these elements: Duṣyanta’s protective gesture toward a wounded deer evokes heroic rasa while silently foreshadowing erotic union. Śākuntalā’s lament after the curse—

“her alarmed friends succeed in pacifying him and getting a reprieve of the curse to the effect that the king will remember her when he sees the ring.”

(Balakrishnan)

—renders separation a deeply affecting aesthetic episode.

Goodwin critiques the impersonal thrust of classical rasa theory, asking:

“Can it be true that Kālidāsa’s intent was to undermine the King’s and the audience’s aesthetic erotic appréciation of Śākuntalā’s beauty?”

(Goodwin)

His interrogation reveals how the play thematizes aesthetic standards—the rasika’s own sensibility becomes an object of dramatic reflection, complicating rasa’s impersonality. Thus, 'Śākuntalā' not only evokes śṛṅgāra but also self-consciously examines the mechanisms of its own affective power.

5.2. Karuṇā and Other Rasas

While karuṇā (the pathetic) naturally arises from Śākuntalā’s plight—memory loss, rejection, maternal separation—it is intricately woven into the play’s emotional texture. The grief-laden “leave-taking” scene in Act II, though static, amplifies karuṇā through prolonged lyrical verses (Gerow, “Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā, Pt. II”). Similarly, sānta (peace) pervades the hermitage’s bucolic setting, the description of Kanva’s hermitage, free from fear, where fawns graze peacefully underscores a tranquil rasa that contrasts the turbulence of separation.

Vīra (the heroic) emerges when Duṣyanta defends Śākuntalā or when he hunts in the forest; these episodes serve as anticipatory markers of erotic union, illustrating how secondary rasas enrich the central sentiment. Other rasas—raudra, bībhatsa, bhayānaka, adbhuta—surface in moments of anger (Durvāsā’s curse), disgust (the hermit’s wrath), fear (the deer’s flight), and marvel (the ring’s reappearance), collectively demonstrating the polyvalent rasa configuration that Bharata anticipates.

6. Thematic and Aesthetic Synthesis

Kālidāsa’s integration of plot and rasa transcends mechanical formulae, achieving a “creative synthesis” of emotion and narrative. Goodwin terms this the aesthetic-thematic, whereby—

“the aesthetic standards of the rasika or sahrdaya are themselves thematized within the play.”

(Goodwin)

In 'Śākuntalā,' duty (dharma) and love (kāma)—themselves reflective of vīra and śṛṅgāra rasas—become narrative themes that converge in the final act, illustrating how Kālidāsa “plots thematic development” in line with the puruṣārtha scheme (Goodwin).

Moreover, Tieken’s critique of single-rasa dominance underscores that 'Śākuntalā' exhibits a “multiflavoured” assembly of rasas, in keeping with the 'Natyāśāstra’s' view that “the more rasas in a play the better” (Tieken). By layering emotions—union and separation, heroism and repose—Kālidāsa constructs a dramaturgy that both adheres to and innovates within classical precepts.

7. Critical Perspectives and Debates

7.1. Goodwin’s Reflexive Aesthetic

Goodwin’s analysis foregrounds the play’s reflexivity: by dramatizing the rasika’s own reception, Kālidāsa invites reflection on the “impersonality” of aesthetic emotion (Goodwin). This meta-theatrical dimension suggests that 'Śākuntalā' is not merely a vehicle for rasa but an exploration of rasa’s epistemic and ethical underpinnings—a dramatic philosophy embedded in narrative.

7.2. Tieken’s Return to Bharata

Tieken advocates returning strictly to Bharata’s sixth and seventh chapters, eschewing later Abhinavaguptan elaborations as incongruent with classical practice (Tieken). From this standpoint, 'Śākuntalā’s' multivalent rasa landscape aligns more closely with early 'Natyāśāstra' norms than with the notion of a singular pradhāna rasa (Tieken).

7.3. Emeneau and the Epic Foundation

Emeneau’s insistence on recognizing Kālidāsa’s indebtedness to the 'Mahābhārata' affirms that innovation rests on transformation. Though Kālidāsa departs in language and structure, Emeneau argues that “detailed study has succeeded in finding” epic echoes that anchor 'Śākuntalā' in a broader narrative continuum (Emeneau).

7.4. Balakrishnan’s Psychological Reading

Balakrishnan’s view of the curse and ring as “externally projected symbols” of psychological states highlights Kālidāsa’s skill in rendering inner life through plot mechanics (Balakrishnan). This psychoanalytic lens complements formalist approaches by foregrounding character motivation and subconscious resonance.

8. Conclusion

Kālidāsa’s 'Abhijñānaśākuntalam' epitomizes the synergy between a rigorously engineered plot and the evocation of rasa. Through its fivefold samdhi structure, the play meticulously orchestrates determinants, consequents, and transitory states to elicit a spectrum of emotions, with śṛṅgāra at its core. Scholarly perspectives—from Gerow’s technical explication and Emeneau’s epic provenance to Goodwin’s reflexive critique and Tieken’s philological precision—converge to reveal how 'Śākuntalā' operates as both artefact and aesthetic experiment. Ultimately, this drama demonstrates that rasa is not an ancillary quality but the animating soul of theatrical craft—a principle that Kālidāsa, in poetic mastery, renders into living, resonant art.

References:

BALAKRISHNAN, PURASU. “THE CURSE MOTIF IN ABHIJNANASAKUNTALAM: Kalidasa’s Psychological Insight.” Indian Literature, vol. 37, no. 2 (160), 1994, pp. 108–21. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23337594.

Emeneau, M. B. “Kālidāsa’s Śakuntalā and the Mahābhārata.” Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 82, no. 1, 1962, pp. 41–44. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/595977.

Gerow, Edwin. “Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā. Pt. I.” Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 99, no. 4, 1979, pp. 559–72. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/601446.

---. “Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā, Pt. II.” Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 100, no. 3, 1980, pp. 267–82. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/601799.

GOODWIN, ROBERT E. “AESTHETIC AND EROTIC ENTRANCEMENT IN THE ŚAKUNTALĀ.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, vol. 43, no. 1, 1989, pp. 99–123. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23657911.

Kālidāsa. The Recognition of Shakuntala. NYU Press, 2006.

TIEKEN, HERMAN. “ON THE USE OF ‘RASA’ IN STUDIES OF SANSKRIT DRAMA.” Indo-Iranian Journal, vol. 43, no. 2, 2000, pp. 115–38. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/24663435.